CASE STUDIES Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

CASE STUDIES - Essay Example gement and the board of directors is 100% male, since Panera is offering a healthier option for food, they could be helped by having female and minority members of the board as well as in the management team to provide a better corporate image. 3. Opening restaurants in other countries with an aggressive growth strategy would require a flood of marketing both in terms of awareness of healthy food (where such awareness is not already present) and establishing their brand identity. 4. The restaurant I went to seemed too dark and gloomy. Even though there were colorful signs at plenty of places, the lack of light made an overall depressing setting. I would suggest that they make use of natural light in the interior and bring the interiors with their unique selling point of healthy food and healthy lifestyles. 1. From the case, it seems obvious that the key competency required would be excellent communications skills which can get the point across the table as well as across the border. Secondly, cultural competency and an ability to work with peoples of different cultures are also important. Finally, since a culture may not be as socially advanced, it could be towards the benefit of the company to use a male representative instead of a female if both of them are equally suited for the job at hand. 2. The only cost of not understanding diversity is profit, which is something no company can afford to lose. If the plant had been developed and run with an understanding of diversity, the communication problems and the cultural clashes could certainly be minimized and the lost production time could have been turned into profitable output. 3. The first problem she faced was stereotyping, just because she was Mexican American; it was assumed that she could work with Mexicans better than anyone else. The second problem was the cultural gap with the Mexicans and communication issues with the Americans. She also faced problems with Mexican men accepting her as the

Rational Emotional Behavior Therapy Case Study Conceptualization and Tr

Rational Emotional Behavior Therapy Case Study of Sarah: A Conceptualization and Treatment Plan Rational emotive behavior therapy, REBT, was developed by Albert Ellis and holds the central belief that the events in our lives do not cause our disturbances but that they are instead caused by our view of the events (Murdock, 2009). Murdock (2009) states that â€Å"people are seen as responsible for their behavior† (p. 279) but, because they are constantly changing and processing, their value or worth is not measured by their behavior. According to REBT, healthy individuals function with rational beliefs (Murdock, 2009). Sarah’s needs can best be met through the use of REBT as the therapist incorporates the interventions of role-playing and disputing, stop and monitor, and recognizing and changing irrational thought patterns, while striving for the goal of eliminating irrational thinking, dysfunctional emotions, and behaviors and teaching Sarah the philosophy of REBT. REBT will allow Sarah to overcome and replace her irrational beliefs and in turn experience healthy consequences and emotions. Presenting Concerns Sarah James, a 26-year-old Caucasian female, is seeking counsel in response to the unveiling of a family secret. Upon learning of the existence of an older brother and the, in her mind, poorly handled events surrounding the secret, Sarah is questioning her relationships and views of her family members. Sarah is unsure of what to do with the information she has been presented and is reevaluating her childhood, which she once thought had been near perfect. She is feeling confused, frustrated, angry, and isolated and these feelings and emotions have brought her to seek counsel over the situation. Case Conceptualization Ba... ... and religion. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31 (1), 29-33. Jones, S.L., & Butman, R.E. (1991). Modern psychotherapies: A comprehensive Christian appraisal. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Lega, L.I., & Ellis, A. (2001). Rational emotional behavior therapy (REBT) in the new millennium: A cross cultural approach. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 19 (4). 201-222. Minor, J. (2007). Some reasons why I use REBT in my private practice and personal life. Et Cetera, 64 (4), 320-323. Murdock, N.L. (2009). Theories of counseling and psychotherapy: A case approach (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill-Pearson. Ziegler, D.J. (2000). Basic assumptions concerning human nature underlying rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) personality theory. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 18 (2), 67-85.

Project Management Process Groups and the Six Questions in Pmlc

Mapping the six (6) questions to basic Process Groups of the PMBOK methodology. According to Wysocki (2012, p. 25) ‘Project management is a set of tools, templates, and processes designed to answer the following six questions: What business situation is being addressed by this project? What do you need to do? What will you do? How will you do it? How will you know you did it? How well did you do it? ’ Wysocki (2012, p. 4) also added that; ‘In addition to answering the six questions that a valid project management methodology must answer, whatever project management life cycle model you use must contain all of the following Process Groups; Scoping (PMI calls the Initiation), Planning, Launching (PMI calls the Execution), Monitoring & Controlling and Closing. The process groups will each be completed and in sequence, some or all of them may be repeated a number of times’.PMI recognized the five process groups and nine knowledge areas to make up the Project man agement Body of Knowledge (PMBOK). PMI also identified the five process groups as building blocks of every project management life cycle. Scoping is identified by PMBOK as Initiation. Projects brainstorming, client need analysis, resource requirements, documentations and management approval are handled at this stage. This stage clearly answers questions like; â€Å"what business situation is being addressed? † and â€Å"what needs to be done? †.Key inputs at this stage can include contracts from the clients, deliverables from a company’s annual business plan, policy, procedure and other social factors where the project will be cited. The outputs of scoping process group are Project Charter and Preliminary Project Scope Statement. Scoping is aimed at addressing the business situation at hand by indicating what needs to be done. For example, IT projects scoping in NLNG activities are handled by a multi-disciplinary team of subject-matter experts (SMEs) – in cluding IT eams from Strategy and Planning. The whole team reports to IT projects review team of senior management positions to secure management approval on the project. Planning follows Project Charter and Preliminary Project Scope Statement produced by the scoping activity to establish project objectives and how to go about achieving such objectives within the project scope. Planning will answer the questions; â€Å"what to do? † and â€Å"how to do it? by setting clear objectives for the project, allocating resources, identifying the best-fit model, setting milestone/targets throughout the project lifespan, etc. A Project Management Plan is drawn up at the end of the planning process. For example; in NLNG a three-year IT projects plan document is updated with latest approvals, milestones and closeouts to produce what is called â€Å"IT Master plan for the year† which various project managers use throughout the year in implementing IT projects.Launching/execution w orks with the Project Management Plan to deploy human and material resources to ensure all deliverables are achieved as planned. The question of; ‘how will you do it? † gets answered here. Project management plan is the only input here and it must be strict to objectives, targets and specifications. The output at this stage a performance according to plan. In NLNG, IT project teams work across company locations in line with IT Master plan all through the year.Monitoring and Controlling process group ensures projects are run in line with targets by identifying KPIs for periodic monitoring – based on client’s requirements in the project plan. Changes to project scope, budget performance, maintenance/repairs to project equipment, etc, are all represented here in an attempt to answer the question; ‘how will you know you did it†? Project deliverables are only recognized at this stage. Key inputs to this process group are KPIs of the launching/executi on group while their output is the project delivery/milestone status.In NLNG, various teams are involved in monitoring and controlling projects. Ranging from the Cost Controller who monitors budget and reports cost (work-in-progress), through quality assurances and process auditors who ensure compliance with procedure, risk management and corporate governance. Closing process group collates all deliverables and closes all sub-process when a project is adjudged completed. Contracts and procurements, manpower engaged, work-in-progress close out and so many other project administrative supports are rounded up here.At this stage, the final product derived from the project is presented to the client according to specifications. The question of â€Å"how well did you do? † will be answered when client approves of the output, asset/output gets installed, audit tests post-implementation status and a final report submitted. In NLNG for example, IT projects are closed with a report and a â€Å"go-live† activity. In conclusion, the questions of what business situation to address and what needs to be done are critical success factors to any project.The Project Charter and Preliminary statements derive from such questions and are therefore essential to how a project plan is developed with achievable objectives, what resources are required to launch/execute the project, how to monitor and control parameters and when to identify project ending and close out. Wysocki (2012, p. 9) aptly captures this in his definition of project as; ‘a sequence of finite dependent activities whose successful completion results in the delivery of the expected business value that validated doing the business’.Therefore, until a business need is identified, there cannot be a project. Reference: 1. Project Management Institute (undated). Available online at; http://www. pmi. org/pmief/learningzone/KCMA_Curricula_Documents/Lesson_1-Five_Processes_Definitions. pdf (Accesse d 23rd March, 2013) 2. White, D. (undated) ‘The 5 project management process groups’. Articles Dashboard, Available online at; http://www. articledashboard. com/Article/The-5-Project-Management-Process-Groups/484871 (Accessed 23rd March, 2013)

Physical And Treatment Of Physical Therapy - 1342 Words

Physical Therapy is one of the most important medical health related fields out there. Physical Therapists play a crucial role in their patient’s overall health. However, the main goals of a Physical Therapist is to aid in recovery, rehab, increase range of motion, and reduce pain for their patients. During a normal work day, they will typically see a variety of patients whose age can range from an eight-year-old to an 85-year-old, and each one with a challenging and unique health issue. These issues can be anything from a post-surgical athlete trying to get back on the playing field to a 65-year-old grandma who has hip and knee problems and needs exercises to strengthen those areas. In order for their patients to strengthen or rehabilitate a certain area, a treatment plan needs to be developed. Here, PT’s select exercises, stretches, and other techniques which they think will help their patient’s recovery process and get them back to normal. Therefore, treatmen t plans are one of the most important aspects of the job description. Although these Physical Therapists are medical professionals, they cannot include everything in their treatment plans. For example, they cannot perform surgery or give prescription medications because they are not technically specialized or fully qualified to do so. But instead, they can recommend their patient’s to a doctor who can perform surgery on them or suggest a medication a Physician can prescribe to them. Typically, Physical TherapistsShow MoreRelatedPhysical Treatment Of Physical Therapy966 Words   |  4 PagesPhysical therapy is defined as the treatment of disease, injury, or deformity by physical method. To me, physical therapy is more complex than just the physical treatment. Physical therapy means that someone is able to live more freely and independently without being bound by my physical ailments. Physical therapy can not only help someone live an active and healthy lifestyle, but it can also give someone back their freedom to continue to live the way they want to live their life. A team of physicalRead MorePhysical Treatment Of Physical Therapy2285 Words   |  10 PagesPhysical Therapy in Sports Physical therapy is trying to help someone overcome a bad obstacle in their life. Some people may think physical therapy isn’t important when recovering, but it is important. â€Å"Physical therapy is primarily concerned with the promotion of mobility, functional ability, quality of life, movement through examination and evaluation, diagnosis, and physical intervention† (Policastro et. al.). So basically therapy tries to help people get everything back to normal. ThereRead MorePhysical Therapy Is The Treatment1548 Words   |  7 PagesPhysical Therapy is the treatment a person needs to assist in problems with the body. Physical Therapy is a broad medical field that specializes in providing help to heal a person. Physical therapy is the type of treatment a person may need when there are injuries to the body, or when physical harm has occurred. Physical Therapy is a medical field that covers the mobility of the body. Physical Therapy is involved with many parts of t he body. It is the treatment a patient seeks when assistance isRead MoreSymptoms And Treatments Of Physical Therapy1593 Words   |  7 Pagesof the patients that are encountered in physical therapy (PT) are taking one or more medications for various conditions. Physical therapists (PTs) do not prescribe medicine to patients. However, it is important for the PT to be aware of the patients’ medications and the effects of the medications on their PT. The effects of medications in combination with the effects of their particular conditions will help guide the PT in the safest and most effective therapy for each unique individual that presentsRead MoreEffective Treatment Of Physical Therapy1356 Words   |  6 Pageswho is a physical therapist, notes, â€Å"Most states have been practicing dry needling since 2003 but weren t allowed to perform until legislation was passed allowing it† (qtd. in Haflich). As a future physical therapist, I will need to work and communicate wi th patients to help them get better and stronger using different techniques. Dry needling is one of the most beneficial treatments because it is effective, cost-efficient, and safe. Dry needling is recognized as an effective treatment of physicalRead MoreBenefits Of Chiropractic Care And Physical Therapy Treatments857 Words   |  4 Pagessports-related injuries and from injuries sustained during a car accident. Seek Treatment for Your Injuries Right Away Individuals who have a sports-related injury or who have sustained injuries during an automobile crash should seek treatment promptly. In respect to seeking medical treatment, there are time limits placed on individuals who sustain injuries in any type of accident; therefore, individuals who neglect to seek treatment in a timely manner may find it difficult to attain compensation from theRead MoreThe Effects Of Physical Therapists On The Medical Field1706 Words   |  7 PagesAn abundance of physical therapists will continue to be needed in the medical field because of the continuous rate of injuries. Physical therapists treat injury or medical problems that limit a patient’s ability to function in everyday life. Physical therapist treat patients of all ages and promote interactions with patients, family, caregivers and other health professionals. Most people have been through physical therapy or will go through physical therapy sometime in their lives. ParticipatingRead M oreHow Physical Therapists Provide And Bill Treatments Essay896 Words   |  4 Pagesto regulate how physical therapists provide and bill treatments, Medicare has implemented numerous laws and regulations that providers treating Part B patients must follow and be recorded in documentation. The issue arising was considered a â€Å"moral hazard†; physical therapists were able to bill treatments and provide treatments that had the greatest reimbursement rate, for any length of time, without consequence. One on one and group therapy, services provided by physical therapy assistants, co-treatingRead MorePhysical Therapy Is The Health Profession1171 Words   |  5 PagesPhysical therapy is the health profession that provides treatment and management of physical disability, malfunction, or pain via various modalities, and without the use of medicines, surgery, or radiation [1]. An individual who practices physical therapy is known as a physical therapist. Physical therapists are e xperts of the musculoskeletal and neuromuscular systems, and they evaluate and treat patients for issues that involve those systems [2]. The role of a physical therapist is to evaluate patientsRead MoreShould Sports Medicine Be Increased Popular Among Students?1445 Words   |  6 Pagesare numerous majors to choose from, and each provide the student with multiple opportunities for jobs once he has completed college. One major that is becoming popular is exercise science. Exercise Science is the scientific study or analysis of physical activity/exercise. Due to the fact that there are a variety of different exercises/ ways to be physically active and every person is different exercise science is extremely broad. New research leads to more ways to study exercise science. With exercise

Racism A Long Way Down The American History - 1426 Words

Kennedy Okumu Professor Jenia Walter English 121 November 15, 2015 Racism goes a long way down the American history. It came as a result of slavery which began in 1619 when African slaves were brought to Jamestown, Virginia, which was an American colony in the North, to help in producing crops such as tobacco. Slavery was then a common practice in all American colonies through the 17th and 18th centuries, where African slaves helped in building the economic foundations of the now American nation. Slavery was then spread to the South in 1793, with the new invention of the cotton gin. About halfway through the 19th century, there was immense westward expansion in America, together with the spreading abolition movement in the North,†¦show more content†¦It ruins the day to day cooperation, promotes hate and war among neighbors, social injustice practices, decrease the rate of productivity at work, and promotes fear and tension in our lives. It is destroys what we have built, and argues that the quality of a human being is based on the color of their skin and not the content of one s behaviors and acts. According to Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary, Racism is defined as, â€Å"a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race†. It is the most arrogant form of pride. It can be cultural, systematic, individual or even institutional. On the other hand, there is stereotypes. Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary defines them as, â€Å"an often unfair and untrue belief that many people have about all people or things with a particular characteristic. â€Å"Racism and stereotype are often confusing and many people have misused or misunderstood one or the other while others have argued that stereotype is a form of racism. There is more than enough proof that we are not born racist but are rather taught to be racist. It could be intentionally or unintentionally passed on to a generation by innocent parents and through the day-to-day social interaction in our society. â€Å"Race is a sociohistorical concept that has been defined by a rigidly enforced color line.

Scientific Knowledge Is Reliable Knowledge - 871 Words

In the following essay I shall be responding to the statement put forward by Alan Chalmers which is quoted below. I will explain the point of view that agrees with this statement, how Karl Popper or someone who holds hypothetico-deductivism views would react and my own personal opinion. â€Å"Scientific knowledge is proven knowledge. Scientific theories are derived in some rigorous way from the facts of experience acquired by observation and experiment. Science is based on what we can see and hear and touch, etc. Personal opinion or preferences and speculative imaginings have no place in science. Science is objective. Scientific knowledge is reliable knowledge because it is objectively proven knowledge.† Chalmers is a supporter of an inductivist view. An inductivist view is one that follows the notion that all scientific methods will create reliable knowledge by means of so called inductive reasoning from things that can be physically seen or experimented with. A hypothetico-deductivist view is one where radical ideas should be put forward and then attempts should be made to falsify it. If these ideas can withstand these attempts then it must be considered to be true. A person who fully agrees with Alan Chalmers statements and therefore would support the ideal that all of scientific knowledge is in fact proven and that scientific theories are developed from previous experimentation that leads to observations and therefore evidence. They would be of the viewpoint that in factShow MoreRelatedDoes the scientific method necessarily always produce reliable and valid knowledge?1506 Words   |  7 PagesScientific method is an epistemological system used by the scientists to investigate natural phenomena, developing new knowledge or correcting preceding knowledge (Jennings, 2008:5). It is considered the best objective framework to construct an accurate representation of the world, it include ideas, procedures, rules, techniques and modes which exist in theoretical research, applied research, development and promotion of scientific activities. This essay aim to prove that although the scientificRead MoreScience Throughout the Ages912 Words   |  4 Pag esscientia, meaning knowledge. The definition of science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. An older term of science refers to a body of knowledge itself, of anything that can be successfully applied to a situation. Someone who practices science is known as a scientist. Modern science has been traced back to the early modern period and in particular to the scientific revolution. Scientific methods are consideredRead MoreKnowledge Through Sense Perception, Emotion, Language, And Reason1396 Words   |  6 PagesKnowledge can be defined as information gained through sense perception, emotion, language and reason, while it is defined by Plato as â€Å"justified true belief.† The claim that knowledge takes the form of a combination of stories and facts is however not accurate in history and biology. First, it brings up the questions of what are stories and what are facts. Stories are accounts of past events from somebody’s perspective, while a fact is the truth. When looking at the two areas of knowledge, theyRead More Science Essay1585 Words   |  7 Pagesof all knowledge. Is this view reasonable or does it involve a misunderstanding of science or of knowledge? For many persons science is considered the supreme form of all knowledge, as science is based on facts and theories and it reaches its results through an approved scientific method. Consequently, it seems to be objective and thus more truthful and reliable. However, other persons argue that this is a misunderstanding of science. Hence, one should question what science and knowledge entailRead MoreThe Acquisition of Knowledge and the Natural Sciences1451 Words   |  6 PagesKnowledge can be accepted or refuted, hence what determines accepted knowledge? I believe ‘accepted knowledge’ is that which has been tested whereby sufficient evidence has been collected to support certain knowledge claims. However, it is important to consider times when knowledge has been refuted. Despite strong belief that we possess objective facts, through research and  technological progresses, such facts become re-interpreted in light of new evidence and discoveries. Personally, discarded kn owledgeRead MoreAlan Chalmers s Theory Of Scientific Knowledge1010 Words   |  5 PagesScience - the â€Å"Hypothetico-deductive† method â€Å"Scientific knowledge is proven knowledge. Scientific theories are derived in some rigorous way from the facts of experience acquired by observation and experiment. Science is based on what we can see and hear and touch, etc. Personal opinion or preferences and speculative imaginings have no place in science. Science is objective. Scientific knowledge is reliable knowledge because it is objectively proven knowledge.† – Alan Chalmers, What Is This Thing CalledRead MoreThe Knowledge Of Natural Sciences And History1592 Words   |  7 Pageswithin another in order to gain knowledge in a particular Area of knowing. The statement implies that not using a network of WOK to gain knowledge is unwise. Thus, I wish to examine how we best acquire knowledge in Natural Sciences and History. My two central knowledge questions are, how reliable is it to use only one way of knowing in one Area of knowledge in order to gain knowledge? and Is it essential to use a network of ways of knowing to acquire good knowledge? The scope of Natural SciencesRead MoreTheories And Theories Of The Calms Made By Alan Chalmers907 Words   |  4 PagesThe following essay aims to discuss the calms made by Alan Chalmers, discussing his inductive views of the scientific method stating that â€Å"Scientific knowledge is proven knowledge†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and that â€Å"†¦Scientific knowledge is reliable knowledge because it is objectively proven knowledge.† I will also be discussing Karl Popper’s opposing views on the scientific method, siding with his falsification method. I think that even though both sides are rational, Alan Chalmers clams are more practical and better forRead MoreKnowledge Takes the Form of a Combination of Stories and Facts.992 Words   |  4 PagesAny knowledge around us is constructed by stories and facts. At the first glance while considering about the authenticity of the statement on whether the stories or facts are the parts to construct the knowledge, it’s important to get an understanding of the key terms at the beginning by the defining these terms. A fact stands for the theory which had been proved by actual science research or observations, whereas the story is a narrative which is based on fiction. A fact is usually a statement whichRead MoreScientific Theory Essay642 Words   |  3 PagesScientific Theory A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspects of the natural world, based on a body of knowledge that has been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. Scientist creates scientific theories from hypothesis that have been corroborated through the scientific method, then gather evidence to test their accuracy. The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain, which is measured by its ability to make

Term Paper on Organization Behavior Free Essays

Term paper on Organization Behavior Course No: EMIS-514/513 Course Title: Organization Behavior Semester: summer 2010 Submitted To: Prof. Dr. Abdul Mannan Chowdury Professor, Department of MIS Submitted by: M. We will write a custom essay sample on Term Paper on Organization Behavior or any similar topic only for you Order Now M. Sharifuzzaman Id No: 60917-10-011 Acknowledgement I express a deep sense of gratitude to my honorable Course teacher Prof. M. A. Mannan Chowdhury for his valuable lectures, teaching approach and guidelines on Organizational Behavior which have guided me all over this course. I use departmental library to get recourses about this subject, which have direct me through easy way to prepare this paper.Some of my course mates have encouraged and suggested me how to prepare the term paper, special thanks to them. Table of content Name of ChapterPage No 1. Introduction to Organizational Behavior1 2. Motivational Needs and Processes4 3. Positive Organizational Behavior6 4. Managing Performance through Job Design and Goal Setting8 5. Groups and Teams10 6. Leadership Process and Styles, Activities and Skills12 7. Conclusion 14 Chapter 1: Introduction to Organizational Behavior Organizational Behavior: The term organizational Behavior consists of two words, a. organization, b. ehavior which gives the idea that the behavior is performed in organization is organizational Behavior. Behavior can be showed as the following a function of organism and Environment. B = f (O, E) Behavior = f (organism, Environment) Organizational Behavior can be defined as the understanding, predicting, and management of human behavior in organizations. The relationship of Organizational Behavior to other discipline: There are four closely related discipline in an organization those are a. Organizational Theory (OT), b. Organizational Behavior (OB), c. Organizational Development (OD), and d.Human Resource Management (HRM) Organizational Development (OD) Human Resource Management (HRM) Organizational Theory (OT) Organizational Behavior (OB) Theoretical Applied Figure 1. 1: The relationship of Organizational Behavior to other discipline Behavior to other discipline Micro Macro Although figure 1. 1 portrays the theoretical means of relating the four functions, in practical it does not means too much. As we need to have a base to learn organization and its function it’s an attempt to raise a base point. OT tends to more macro oriented than OB and more Theoretical than OD.OT topics are included in study and application of OB. On the other hand OD tends to be more Macro and more applied than OB. OB is more concerned about Micro environment than OT and more theoretical than HRM. HRM tends to have more focus on application of OB. Theoretical framework of OB: There are three theoretical frameworks of OB, which are a. Cognitive Framework, b. Behavioristic Framework, and c. Social Cognitive Frameworks. There frameworks are stated below: Cognitive Framework Cognitive approach emphasizes the positive and freewill aspects of human behavior and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand, and intention.Cognition can be simply defined as the act of knowing an item of information. In cognitive framework, cognitions precede behavior and constitute input into the person’s thinking, perception, problem solving, and information processing. Behavioristic Framework Pioneer behaviorists stressed the importance of studying observable behaviors instead of the elusive mind. Behaviorists’ used classical conditioning of stimulus and response (S-R) to explain the human behavior. A stimulus elicits a response. Some other behaviorists emphasize the R-S to explain the behavior. In R-S where there may have response, stimulus is waiting for that.The R-S theory has obtained by operant condition. Social Cognitive Framework This framework helps the researchers’ to come in common platform from the polarization between cognitive theory and behavioristic theory. Social learning theory takes the position that behavior can best be explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction among cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants. The person and the environmental situation do not function as independent units but, in conjunction with behavior itself, reciprocally interact to determine behavior.It means that cognitive variables and environmental variables are relevant, but the experiences generated by previous behavior also partly determine what a person becomes and can do, which, in turn, affects subsequently behavior. A person’s cognition or understanding changes according to the experience of consequences of past behavior. Chapter 2: Motivational Needs and Processes Motivation: Definition: The term motivation may be comprehensively defined as; it is a process that starts with the psychological of physical deficiency of need that activates a behavior of a drive that aimed at a goal or incentive.Motivation process: Needs set up a drives aimed at incentives. This is the basic motivational process, consists of three elements, needs, drives, incentives. Primary motives are physiological, biological, unlearned motives. Those are very raw, basic motives of human behavior. General motives are the curiosity, manipulation, activity motives and affection motives. After achieving primary motive general motive comes into focus. The secondary motives include the power motive, achievement motive, the affiliation motive, the status motive, and the security motive, intrinsic and extrinsic motives.Types of Motive: Motives are three types,Primary motives, General motives, Secondary motives. All the motives of human behavior may be classified in these three classes. The content theories of work motivation: There are several content theories of work motivation such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation, Alderfer’s ERG theory. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs divides the whole needs into five hierarchic levels. According this theory the needs hierarchy is 1, physiological needs, 2. Safety needs, 3. Love needs, 4. Esteem needs, and 5.Needs of self- actualization. , Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation said that needs have only two factors 1. Hygiene factor, and 2. Motivational factors. Alderfer’s ERG theory divides needs into three types 1. Existence, 2. Relatedness, and 3. Growth. The process theories of work motivation: There are numerous process theories of work motivation, for example, Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation, where motivation force, F = ? (Valence x Expectancy) and the Porter-Lawler Model. Figure shows Porter-Lawler Model of work motivation. Chapter 3: Positive Organizational BehaviorPositive Organizational Behavior (POB): It is defined as the study and application of positive oriented human strengths and psychological capacity that can be measured developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement. It has five operational criteria as follows * Based on theory and research * Valid measures * Unique concepts * Open to development * Managed for performance The psychological capacity that meets these five criteria is being discussed below: Optimism: Optimism is basic part of human behavior, which contributes to elucidate the differences between individuals. For example, employees with optimists’ character have a very constructive view for changing the business functions into high tech revolution. Inversely, employees those are pessimists have feared due to this IT changes. Hope: We know that the simplest meaning of hope consists of both the â€Å"will power† and the â€Å"way power†. That’s why we say that, the employee’s feelings, belief, ability to solve problems and the overall management capabilities of their entire work scope will be improved significantly if they emerge with the growing changes in organizational IT infrastructure.Subjective Well-Being (SWB): SWB is a term that describes for what people usually mean by happiness. If the changes in IT directed to motivate the human resources of organization to attain the happiness of the individuals then it is considered definitely as a POB construct. Resiliency: Resiliency is viewed as the capacities to rebound or bounce back form any unconvention al situation that arises in the organization to improve responsibility of the individuals. This POB construct can be rationalized by taking necessary steps (that includes carry out corrective courses of ctions) for the employees who are not coping with the IT changes in the first phase. Emotional Intelligence (EI): EI is simply a person feels about something without considering any pre-requisites. This POB construct deals with love or affection, surprise, fear, sadness anger, disgust or even shame of employees in an organization. We must take into account of these components when we implement a high tech environment for the organization. Considering all the dimensions, EI helps us to promote the successful implementation of IT infrastructure in corporate levels.Self-Efficacy: It refers to an individual confidence about his or her capabilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of actions in order to execute particular tasks successfully within a given context. We must sort out the sources of self-efficacy among the organizational individuals and modify them in an efficient way so that IT changes in organization effectively streamlined. Chapter 4: Managing Performance through Job Design and Goal Setting Job design:Job design may be defined as the methods that management uses to develop the content of a job, including all relevant tasks as well as the process by which jobs are constructed and revised. In the recent trends of the organization it has become a important application in the study of Organizational Behavior, as the nature of job is being changing very fast with the implementation of IT. There are various approaches of job design which is being illustrated in the following figure: Job Design Job Engineering Scientific management, industrial engineering approaches Job enrichmentVertically loading the job to provide more responsibility Quality of work life A broad based approach suggesting the importance of overall climate, sociotechnical design and teams. Job characteristics Building skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback into job. Social information processing A complex the oretical model suggesting the importance of social information or cues affecting jobholders. Figure shows various approaches of job design Goal setting: Goal setting is process of motivating employees by establishing effective and meaningful performance target.It is important factor in today’s organization to measure performance, motivate for achieving target, and manage the human resources in effective manner. Chapter 5: Groups and Teams Group: The group is widely recognized as an important sociological and socio psychological unit of analysis in the study of Organizational Behavior. The term group can be comprehensively defined as a collection of some members who are motivated to join, perceive the group as a unified unit of interacting people, contribute in various amounts to the group process and reach agreements and have disagreements through various forms of interactions. Types of group:Groups are classified in various ways. Some of these classifications are given below: * Group consists only two members is simple dyad group. * Small groups and large groups * Primary groups and secondary groups which are sometimes called coalitions. * Others groups * Membership groups and reference groups * In groups and out groups * Formal groups and informal groups Teams: The terms teams and groups are used interchangeably, though there are some distinction between these two. The team ois frequentl y used for any group especially to get individuals to work together and motivate them for achieving common collective goals. The distinctions between groups and teams: The distinctions between groups and teams are shown in following table: Focus| Group| Team| Leader | Strong clearly focused leader| shared leadership roles| Accountability | Individual | Mutual| Purpose | Same as organization| Specific purpose| Work products| Individual | Collective| Meeting | Efficient meeting| Opened active problem solving meeting| Measurement of effectiveness| Indirectly | Directly by assessing work products| Deeds | Discusses, decides, delegates| Discusses, decides, does the real things. |Types of team: Teams are of three types mainly, 1. Cross-functional team, 2. Virtual team and 3. Self-managed team. The first one consists of members from various departments to perform a certain tasks. Second type is the group which is formed individuals without face to face contact; means of communication between them is the IT, internet, video chat, email, phone conference etc. And the third one is self managed teams; it means the group members are totally responsible for managing and performing all the tasks to get a goal themselves. Chapter 6: Leadership ProcessLeadership: Leadership  is stated as the â€Å"process of  social influence  in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task. Historical studies of leadership: The Iowa leadership studies: This studies classified leadership into three classes. Those are the following: * Authoritarian * Autocratic leadership, directs the followers without considering their opinion. * Democratic * Leads the follower considering their opinion * Laissez – faire * Gives complete freedom to do anything as they like.Ohio state leadership studies: This study was the first to include the task and human orientation nature of leadership. Consideration in this study is the people-orientation and Initiating Structure is the task orientation. Early Michigan leadership studies: This study classified the leadership of two categories, a) product centered and b) employee centered. Theories of leadership: There are lots of theories of leadership mainly of two major classes according to time of the development * Traditional theories of leadership * Modern theories of leadershipTraditional theories are the following: * Trait theory. * Groups and exchange theories * Contingency theory * Path- goal leadership theory The modern theoretical processes of leadership are the following: * Charismatic leadership theories * Transformational leadership theory * Social cognitive approach Chapter 7: Conclusion The organizational behavior has a potential to study and develop modern organizations. This issue is one of the most modern subject matters on which a lot of psychological and sociological works yet to do.Organizational Behavior leads to study, understand, predict, and manage human resource management in an organization. The Human Res ource Management (HRM) of modern organization is entirely an application of these studies of Organizational Behavior. The result is an effective management of Human Resource, which leads to higher productivity, good organizational environment, both internal and external. As a result Organizational Behavior has already appeared as an important field in management of contemporary organization. How to cite Term Paper on Organization Behavior, Essays