Racism A Long Way Down The American History - 1426 Words

Kennedy Okumu Professor Jenia Walter English 121 November 15, 2015 Racism goes a long way down the American history. It came as a result of slavery which began in 1619 when African slaves were brought to Jamestown, Virginia, which was an American colony in the North, to help in producing crops such as tobacco. Slavery was then a common practice in all American colonies through the 17th and 18th centuries, where African slaves helped in building the economic foundations of the now American nation. Slavery was then spread to the South in 1793, with the new invention of the cotton gin. About halfway through the 19th century, there was immense westward expansion in America, together with the spreading abolition movement in the North,†¦show more content†¦It ruins the day to day cooperation, promotes hate and war among neighbors, social injustice practices, decrease the rate of productivity at work, and promotes fear and tension in our lives. It is destroys what we have built, and argues that the quality of a human being is based on the color of their skin and not the content of one s behaviors and acts. According to Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary, Racism is defined as, â€Å"a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race†. It is the most arrogant form of pride. It can be cultural, systematic, individual or even institutional. On the other hand, there is stereotypes. Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary defines them as, â€Å"an often unfair and untrue belief that many people have about all people or things with a particular characteristic. â€Å"Racism and stereotype are often confusing and many people have misused or misunderstood one or the other while others have argued that stereotype is a form of racism. There is more than enough proof that we are not born racist but are rather taught to be racist. It could be intentionally or unintentionally passed on to a generation by innocent parents and through the day-to-day social interaction in our society. â€Å"Race is a sociohistorical concept that has been defined by a rigidly enforced color line.

Scientific Knowledge Is Reliable Knowledge - 871 Words

In the following essay I shall be responding to the statement put forward by Alan Chalmers which is quoted below. I will explain the point of view that agrees with this statement, how Karl Popper or someone who holds hypothetico-deductivism views would react and my own personal opinion. â€Å"Scientific knowledge is proven knowledge. Scientific theories are derived in some rigorous way from the facts of experience acquired by observation and experiment. Science is based on what we can see and hear and touch, etc. Personal opinion or preferences and speculative imaginings have no place in science. Science is objective. Scientific knowledge is reliable knowledge because it is objectively proven knowledge.† Chalmers is a supporter of an inductivist view. An inductivist view is one that follows the notion that all scientific methods will create reliable knowledge by means of so called inductive reasoning from things that can be physically seen or experimented with. A hypothetico-deductivist view is one where radical ideas should be put forward and then attempts should be made to falsify it. If these ideas can withstand these attempts then it must be considered to be true. A person who fully agrees with Alan Chalmers statements and therefore would support the ideal that all of scientific knowledge is in fact proven and that scientific theories are developed from previous experimentation that leads to observations and therefore evidence. They would be of the viewpoint that in factShow MoreRelatedDoes the scientific method necessarily always produce reliable and valid knowledge?1506 Words   |  7 PagesScientific method is an epistemological system used by the scientists to investigate natural phenomena, developing new knowledge or correcting preceding knowledge (Jennings, 2008:5). It is considered the best objective framework to construct an accurate representation of the world, it include ideas, procedures, rules, techniques and modes which exist in theoretical research, applied research, development and promotion of scientific activities. This essay aim to prove that although the scientificRead MoreScience Throughout the Ages912 Words   |  4 Pag esscientia, meaning knowledge. The definition of science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. An older term of science refers to a body of knowledge itself, of anything that can be successfully applied to a situation. Someone who practices science is known as a scientist. Modern science has been traced back to the early modern period and in particular to the scientific revolution. Scientific methods are consideredRead MoreKnowledge Through Sense Perception, Emotion, Language, And Reason1396 Words   |  6 PagesKnowledge can be defined as information gained through sense perception, emotion, language and reason, while it is defined by Plato as â€Å"justified true belief.† The claim that knowledge takes the form of a combination of stories and facts is however not accurate in history and biology. First, it brings up the questions of what are stories and what are facts. Stories are accounts of past events from somebody’s perspective, while a fact is the truth. When looking at the two areas of knowledge, theyRead More Science Essay1585 Words   |  7 Pagesof all knowledge. Is this view reasonable or does it involve a misunderstanding of science or of knowledge? For many persons science is considered the supreme form of all knowledge, as science is based on facts and theories and it reaches its results through an approved scientific method. Consequently, it seems to be objective and thus more truthful and reliable. However, other persons argue that this is a misunderstanding of science. Hence, one should question what science and knowledge entailRead MoreThe Acquisition of Knowledge and the Natural Sciences1451 Words   |  6 PagesKnowledge can be accepted or refuted, hence what determines accepted knowledge? I believe ‘accepted knowledge’ is that which has been tested whereby sufficient evidence has been collected to support certain knowledge claims. However, it is important to consider times when knowledge has been refuted. Despite strong belief that we possess objective facts, through research and  technological progresses, such facts become re-interpreted in light of new evidence and discoveries. Personally, discarded kn owledgeRead MoreAlan Chalmers s Theory Of Scientific Knowledge1010 Words   |  5 PagesScience - the â€Å"Hypothetico-deductive† method â€Å"Scientific knowledge is proven knowledge. Scientific theories are derived in some rigorous way from the facts of experience acquired by observation and experiment. Science is based on what we can see and hear and touch, etc. Personal opinion or preferences and speculative imaginings have no place in science. Science is objective. Scientific knowledge is reliable knowledge because it is objectively proven knowledge.† – Alan Chalmers, What Is This Thing CalledRead MoreThe Knowledge Of Natural Sciences And History1592 Words   |  7 Pageswithin another in order to gain knowledge in a particular Area of knowing. The statement implies that not using a network of WOK to gain knowledge is unwise. Thus, I wish to examine how we best acquire knowledge in Natural Sciences and History. My two central knowledge questions are, how reliable is it to use only one way of knowing in one Area of knowledge in order to gain knowledge? and Is it essential to use a network of ways of knowing to acquire good knowledge? The scope of Natural SciencesRead MoreTheories And Theories Of The Calms Made By Alan Chalmers907 Words   |  4 PagesThe following essay aims to discuss the calms made by Alan Chalmers, discussing his inductive views of the scientific method stating that â€Å"Scientific knowledge is proven knowledge†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and that â€Å"†¦Scientific knowledge is reliable knowledge because it is objectively proven knowledge.† I will also be discussing Karl Popper’s opposing views on the scientific method, siding with his falsification method. I think that even though both sides are rational, Alan Chalmers clams are more practical and better forRead MoreKnowledge Takes the Form of a Combination of Stories and Facts.992 Words   |  4 PagesAny knowledge around us is constructed by stories and facts. At the first glance while considering about the authenticity of the statement on whether the stories or facts are the parts to construct the knowledge, it’s important to get an understanding of the key terms at the beginning by the defining these terms. A fact stands for the theory which had been proved by actual science research or observations, whereas the story is a narrative which is based on fiction. A fact is usually a statement whichRead MoreScientific Theory Essay642 Words   |  3 PagesScientific Theory A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspects of the natural world, based on a body of knowledge that has been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. Scientist creates scientific theories from hypothesis that have been corroborated through the scientific method, then gather evidence to test their accuracy. The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain, which is measured by its ability to make

Term Paper on Organization Behavior Free Essays

Term paper on Organization Behavior Course No: EMIS-514/513 Course Title: Organization Behavior Semester: summer 2010 Submitted To: Prof. Dr. Abdul Mannan Chowdury Professor, Department of MIS Submitted by: M. We will write a custom essay sample on Term Paper on Organization Behavior or any similar topic only for you Order Now M. Sharifuzzaman Id No: 60917-10-011 Acknowledgement I express a deep sense of gratitude to my honorable Course teacher Prof. M. A. Mannan Chowdhury for his valuable lectures, teaching approach and guidelines on Organizational Behavior which have guided me all over this course. I use departmental library to get recourses about this subject, which have direct me through easy way to prepare this paper.Some of my course mates have encouraged and suggested me how to prepare the term paper, special thanks to them. Table of content Name of ChapterPage No 1. Introduction to Organizational Behavior1 2. Motivational Needs and Processes4 3. Positive Organizational Behavior6 4. Managing Performance through Job Design and Goal Setting8 5. Groups and Teams10 6. Leadership Process and Styles, Activities and Skills12 7. Conclusion 14 Chapter 1: Introduction to Organizational Behavior Organizational Behavior: The term organizational Behavior consists of two words, a. organization, b. ehavior which gives the idea that the behavior is performed in organization is organizational Behavior. Behavior can be showed as the following a function of organism and Environment. B = f (O, E) Behavior = f (organism, Environment) Organizational Behavior can be defined as the understanding, predicting, and management of human behavior in organizations. The relationship of Organizational Behavior to other discipline: There are four closely related discipline in an organization those are a. Organizational Theory (OT), b. Organizational Behavior (OB), c. Organizational Development (OD), and d.Human Resource Management (HRM) Organizational Development (OD) Human Resource Management (HRM) Organizational Theory (OT) Organizational Behavior (OB) Theoretical Applied Figure 1. 1: The relationship of Organizational Behavior to other discipline Behavior to other discipline Micro Macro Although figure 1. 1 portrays the theoretical means of relating the four functions, in practical it does not means too much. As we need to have a base to learn organization and its function it’s an attempt to raise a base point. OT tends to more macro oriented than OB and more Theoretical than OD.OT topics are included in study and application of OB. On the other hand OD tends to be more Macro and more applied than OB. OB is more concerned about Micro environment than OT and more theoretical than HRM. HRM tends to have more focus on application of OB. Theoretical framework of OB: There are three theoretical frameworks of OB, which are a. Cognitive Framework, b. Behavioristic Framework, and c. Social Cognitive Frameworks. There frameworks are stated below: Cognitive Framework Cognitive approach emphasizes the positive and freewill aspects of human behavior and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand, and intention.Cognition can be simply defined as the act of knowing an item of information. In cognitive framework, cognitions precede behavior and constitute input into the person’s thinking, perception, problem solving, and information processing. Behavioristic Framework Pioneer behaviorists stressed the importance of studying observable behaviors instead of the elusive mind. Behaviorists’ used classical conditioning of stimulus and response (S-R) to explain the human behavior. A stimulus elicits a response. Some other behaviorists emphasize the R-S to explain the behavior. In R-S where there may have response, stimulus is waiting for that.The R-S theory has obtained by operant condition. Social Cognitive Framework This framework helps the researchers’ to come in common platform from the polarization between cognitive theory and behavioristic theory. Social learning theory takes the position that behavior can best be explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction among cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants. The person and the environmental situation do not function as independent units but, in conjunction with behavior itself, reciprocally interact to determine behavior.It means that cognitive variables and environmental variables are relevant, but the experiences generated by previous behavior also partly determine what a person becomes and can do, which, in turn, affects subsequently behavior. A person’s cognition or understanding changes according to the experience of consequences of past behavior. Chapter 2: Motivational Needs and Processes Motivation: Definition: The term motivation may be comprehensively defined as; it is a process that starts with the psychological of physical deficiency of need that activates a behavior of a drive that aimed at a goal or incentive.Motivation process: Needs set up a drives aimed at incentives. This is the basic motivational process, consists of three elements, needs, drives, incentives. Primary motives are physiological, biological, unlearned motives. Those are very raw, basic motives of human behavior. General motives are the curiosity, manipulation, activity motives and affection motives. After achieving primary motive general motive comes into focus. The secondary motives include the power motive, achievement motive, the affiliation motive, the status motive, and the security motive, intrinsic and extrinsic motives.Types of Motive: Motives are three types,Primary motives, General motives, Secondary motives. All the motives of human behavior may be classified in these three classes. The content theories of work motivation: There are several content theories of work motivation such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation, Alderfer’s ERG theory. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs divides the whole needs into five hierarchic levels. According this theory the needs hierarchy is 1, physiological needs, 2. Safety needs, 3. Love needs, 4. Esteem needs, and 5.Needs of self- actualization. , Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation said that needs have only two factors 1. Hygiene factor, and 2. Motivational factors. Alderfer’s ERG theory divides needs into three types 1. Existence, 2. Relatedness, and 3. Growth. The process theories of work motivation: There are numerous process theories of work motivation, for example, Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation, where motivation force, F = ? (Valence x Expectancy) and the Porter-Lawler Model. Figure shows Porter-Lawler Model of work motivation. Chapter 3: Positive Organizational BehaviorPositive Organizational Behavior (POB): It is defined as the study and application of positive oriented human strengths and psychological capacity that can be measured developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement. It has five operational criteria as follows * Based on theory and research * Valid measures * Unique concepts * Open to development * Managed for performance The psychological capacity that meets these five criteria is being discussed below: Optimism: Optimism is basic part of human behavior, which contributes to elucidate the differences between individuals. For example, employees with optimists’ character have a very constructive view for changing the business functions into high tech revolution. Inversely, employees those are pessimists have feared due to this IT changes. Hope: We know that the simplest meaning of hope consists of both the â€Å"will power† and the â€Å"way power†. That’s why we say that, the employee’s feelings, belief, ability to solve problems and the overall management capabilities of their entire work scope will be improved significantly if they emerge with the growing changes in organizational IT infrastructure.Subjective Well-Being (SWB): SWB is a term that describes for what people usually mean by happiness. If the changes in IT directed to motivate the human resources of organization to attain the happiness of the individuals then it is considered definitely as a POB construct. Resiliency: Resiliency is viewed as the capacities to rebound or bounce back form any unconvention al situation that arises in the organization to improve responsibility of the individuals. This POB construct can be rationalized by taking necessary steps (that includes carry out corrective courses of ctions) for the employees who are not coping with the IT changes in the first phase. Emotional Intelligence (EI): EI is simply a person feels about something without considering any pre-requisites. This POB construct deals with love or affection, surprise, fear, sadness anger, disgust or even shame of employees in an organization. We must take into account of these components when we implement a high tech environment for the organization. Considering all the dimensions, EI helps us to promote the successful implementation of IT infrastructure in corporate levels.Self-Efficacy: It refers to an individual confidence about his or her capabilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of actions in order to execute particular tasks successfully within a given context. We must sort out the sources of self-efficacy among the organizational individuals and modify them in an efficient way so that IT changes in organization effectively streamlined. Chapter 4: Managing Performance through Job Design and Goal Setting Job design:Job design may be defined as the methods that management uses to develop the content of a job, including all relevant tasks as well as the process by which jobs are constructed and revised. In the recent trends of the organization it has become a important application in the study of Organizational Behavior, as the nature of job is being changing very fast with the implementation of IT. There are various approaches of job design which is being illustrated in the following figure: Job Design Job Engineering Scientific management, industrial engineering approaches Job enrichmentVertically loading the job to provide more responsibility Quality of work life A broad based approach suggesting the importance of overall climate, sociotechnical design and teams. Job characteristics Building skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback into job. Social information processing A complex the oretical model suggesting the importance of social information or cues affecting jobholders. Figure shows various approaches of job design Goal setting: Goal setting is process of motivating employees by establishing effective and meaningful performance target.It is important factor in today’s organization to measure performance, motivate for achieving target, and manage the human resources in effective manner. Chapter 5: Groups and Teams Group: The group is widely recognized as an important sociological and socio psychological unit of analysis in the study of Organizational Behavior. The term group can be comprehensively defined as a collection of some members who are motivated to join, perceive the group as a unified unit of interacting people, contribute in various amounts to the group process and reach agreements and have disagreements through various forms of interactions. Types of group:Groups are classified in various ways. Some of these classifications are given below: * Group consists only two members is simple dyad group. * Small groups and large groups * Primary groups and secondary groups which are sometimes called coalitions. * Others groups * Membership groups and reference groups * In groups and out groups * Formal groups and informal groups Teams: The terms teams and groups are used interchangeably, though there are some distinction between these two. The team ois frequentl y used for any group especially to get individuals to work together and motivate them for achieving common collective goals. The distinctions between groups and teams: The distinctions between groups and teams are shown in following table: Focus| Group| Team| Leader | Strong clearly focused leader| shared leadership roles| Accountability | Individual | Mutual| Purpose | Same as organization| Specific purpose| Work products| Individual | Collective| Meeting | Efficient meeting| Opened active problem solving meeting| Measurement of effectiveness| Indirectly | Directly by assessing work products| Deeds | Discusses, decides, delegates| Discusses, decides, does the real things. |Types of team: Teams are of three types mainly, 1. Cross-functional team, 2. Virtual team and 3. Self-managed team. The first one consists of members from various departments to perform a certain tasks. Second type is the group which is formed individuals without face to face contact; means of communication between them is the IT, internet, video chat, email, phone conference etc. And the third one is self managed teams; it means the group members are totally responsible for managing and performing all the tasks to get a goal themselves. Chapter 6: Leadership ProcessLeadership: Leadership  is stated as the â€Å"process of  social influence  in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task. Historical studies of leadership: The Iowa leadership studies: This studies classified leadership into three classes. Those are the following: * Authoritarian * Autocratic leadership, directs the followers without considering their opinion. * Democratic * Leads the follower considering their opinion * Laissez – faire * Gives complete freedom to do anything as they like.Ohio state leadership studies: This study was the first to include the task and human orientation nature of leadership. Consideration in this study is the people-orientation and Initiating Structure is the task orientation. Early Michigan leadership studies: This study classified the leadership of two categories, a) product centered and b) employee centered. Theories of leadership: There are lots of theories of leadership mainly of two major classes according to time of the development * Traditional theories of leadership * Modern theories of leadershipTraditional theories are the following: * Trait theory. * Groups and exchange theories * Contingency theory * Path- goal leadership theory The modern theoretical processes of leadership are the following: * Charismatic leadership theories * Transformational leadership theory * Social cognitive approach Chapter 7: Conclusion The organizational behavior has a potential to study and develop modern organizations. This issue is one of the most modern subject matters on which a lot of psychological and sociological works yet to do.Organizational Behavior leads to study, understand, predict, and manage human resource management in an organization. The Human Res ource Management (HRM) of modern organization is entirely an application of these studies of Organizational Behavior. The result is an effective management of Human Resource, which leads to higher productivity, good organizational environment, both internal and external. As a result Organizational Behavior has already appeared as an important field in management of contemporary organization. How to cite Term Paper on Organization Behavior, Essays

Causes for the American Revolution free essay sample

The British were definitely expected to win he dispute because they significantly over powered the Colonists in most areas. They had more money, weapons, people, etc. However the Americans prevailed with the help of the French. Their involvement was largely based on the French losing the French and Indian War to the English. The American Revolution was an inevitable conflict. The French and Indian War had major effects on the British and American colonists. This war doubled Englands already existent debt. Americas little financial and military help outraged many British officials during the war, which largely benefited he Americas.They were also bitter about the Colonists trading goods with enemies of the British. Because of this the British increased authority over the colonies after the war. The British began to tax the colonists to meet Englands financial needs. England passed many Acts that were ill conceived and had long-term effects on the relationship between England and the colonies. The crown had never directly taxed the colonists before. This caused problems between the Colonists and the British. A few Of the major Acts were the Sugar Act, Currency Act, Stamp Act, and Tea Act.The Sugar Act f 1 764 was an effort to try and stop the illegal trade between the Colonists and the French and Spanish. The Currency Act was also passed in 1764. The colonists responded to the Sugar Act and Currency Act by protesting against the use of writs of assistance, or search warrants, which were filled out after the illegal goods were found, violating the Colonists rights. Alleged smugglers would be tried in the Admiralty Courts where the accused had no right to trail by jury and the judge pocketed 1/3 of the fines they imposed.The Stamp Act of 1 765 enraged the colonists for this act was a direct attempt by the English o raise money from the colonists without the consent of the colonial assemblies. This tax was different from the rest because the other taxes were to regulate trade. Colonists reacted by riots, boycotts, the forming of the Stamp Act Congress, and Sam Adams organized the Sons of Liberty. The Stamp Act was the first external tax. The colonists felt that they were being taxed without representation. In 1 770 an extraordinary number of British troops were stationed in Boston. The Colonists didnt understand why there were so many troops after the war. This added to the already existent tension. The colonists taunted the Red Coats and on March 5, 1 770 the colonists threw snowballs resulting a hasty decision by the Red Coats to fire at the colonists. Five colonists were killed and nine were wounded. This night is known as the Boston Massacre. The Tea Act of 1773 was a tax on tea but, the British lowered the cost of tea significantly enough that even with the tax, British tea was cheaper than Dutch tea. Also to keep the price down, the British East India Co. To rid of the middleman in the colonies and opened up their own shops. If the colonists bought this tea, they would be accepting the fact that the British loud tax without representation. On DCE. 16th 1 773 the ships docked at the Boston ports. The Sons of Liberty dressed up as Indians and threw 324 chests of tea into the water. England responded to the Boston Tea Party by the coercive Act of 1774. In the fall of 1774 the first continental congress meet in Philadelphia. 55 delegates made a list of grievances and sent it to the King because they did not want to separate from the crown but just work within the system.In the spring of 1 775 they realized that working within the system Was not going to work. For months common people were training to be prepared to fight on a minutes notice, or the minutemen. General Gage was instructed by the British to get ride of the minutemen. The minutemen were waiting at Lexington for the British soldiers because of the help from Paul River and William Dyads. No one knows who fired first but eight minutemen were killed and ten were wounded. Shots heard round the world. The British soldiers moved on to Concord.The British burnt the powder supply and continued to Boston were on the way hidden common people continually red at the Red Coats and resulted in the British losing almost three times as many people as the Americans. This is the beginning of the Revolution, which was not a war, but a rebellion. Not all of the Colonists actually supported the rebellion. A third of the people were Loyalists meaning loyal to the crown. A third of the people were neutral. A third of the people were patriots. The Colonists didnt even have a unified army. The British Empire had money, an organized army, weapons and a great naval fleet.The Colonists had none of these. The only advantage hat the Colonists had at the beginning of the rebellion was that England was across the Atlantic and the battle was in the colonies. Compared to the British who were one of the most powerful empires at this time the Colonists did not seem to have a chance. Some of the major turning points of the war was the involvement of the French and the Battle Of Yorktown. The French did not enter the war until late. The French got involved to spite the British after the French were defeated in the French and Indian war. The French brought the Colonists weapons, men, money and a naval fleet.The Americans now seemed to eave a chance. With the help of the French, Washington won the final battle at Yorktown. The French and American troops trapped Cornwallis army of more than 7,000 men between land and sea. Cornwallis excepted to find the British Fleet but instead found the French Fleet. After some resistance, Cornwallis surrendered. The final settlement in my opinion was worth all the hardships. The Colonists could govern themselves and could control their own affairs without input from England. England at most times was more concerned with the colonies solving Englands problems instead of helping the colonies solve their robbers.The historians feelings about the Revolution are broken up into four groups, the Neo-alienists, the Anti-progressions, the Neo Whig, and the New Left. The Neo-alienists believe that the British are at fault and that they should have changed some laws and things could have worked out. The Anti- Progressions see the social classes as coming together for the same causes. The Americas are a middle class society but all the classes work together for a common good. The Neo Whig feel that the conflict was between good ideas and bad ideas and the good ideas always win.The New Left looks at owe the Revolution affected the minorities and is not interested in any other parts. In my opinion, the true nature of the conflict between the British and the Colonists was that the British had loosely governed the colonies in the beginning. Because of problems at home in England they did not strictly govern the colonies. The colonies formed their own governments around the loose laws of the British. When the British needed money they decided to bring in extra revenue by taxing the colonists. The colonists did not accept their taxation without representation, which caused the Colonists to seek independence from the crown. Even though in the beginning of the Revolution the Colonists did not seem to have a chance they came back in the end with the help of the French and dedication to their cause. The French entering the war was a major turning point. The final settlement turned out to be worth all of the Colonists hardships for they could finally govern themselves freely and could make their own decisions. Historians throughout the years have had many different views about what the Revolution was really about, but half of them feel that the Colonists came together for a good cause.